Evolutionary Computation is the general term for several computational techniques which are based to some degree on the evolution of biological life in the natural world.

My work in evolutionary computation has related to evolution of behavior. I've used evolutionary systems to create behavior control programs for artificial agents. These evolved behavior relate to steering around a simulated environment. In particular I've experimented with corridor following where evolution determines both a sensor morphology and a mapping from sensor output to steering signal. I've also experimented with evolution of players for the game of tag where fitness is based solely on competition.

The most widely used form of evolutionary computation are Genetic Algorithms. In my work I've used the Genetic Programming technique which allows the evolution of executable programs. (See also: GA GP)

Related topics:

• Evolution of motion
  I'm especially interested in the use of evolutionary techniques to discover controllers for animated motion of real or virtual objects:
  • Karl Sims has evolved delightful virtual creatures based on their locomotion skills, and through coevolution has created others that play a certain wrestling game. In Karl's work both the behavior and the morphology (body structure) of the creatures are determined by animation. (See also: this mirror of Karl's original FTP site at think.com, and pages about Karl's work at Biota and by Linda Moss, Tom Ray, Steven Holtzman and the DeCordova Museum)
  • Larry Gritz (old) used Genetic Programming to generate controllers for the animation of physically based articulated figures, such as a jumping desk lamp and a three segment arm. (See Genetic Programming for Articulated Figure Motion and Genetic Programming Evolution of Controllers for 3-D Character Animation)
  • Dave Cliff and Geoffrey F. Miller have evolved neural networks for control of pursuit and evasion through coevolution.
  • Tom Ngo, Joe Marks, et al. used Genetic Algorithms to generate controllers for locomotion of 2d and 3d articulated figures, see these animations.
  • Developing Novel Fighter Combat Rules with Genetics-Based Machine Learning (slides from a presentation) by Robert E. Smith. See also: Classifier Systems In Combat: Two-Sided Learning of Maneuvers For Advanced Fighter Aircraft by Smith, Dike, Mehra, Ravichandran, and El-Fallah. And note: Application of Genetic Algorithms to Air Combat Maneuvering by Bruce A. Dike and Robert E. Smith, not available online, but see the original announcement.
  • Peter Murphy did his MSc project on using a Genetic Algorithm to evolve control curves for physically based 4 segment arm to throw a ball at a target.
  • Jonathan Gibbs worked on inverse kinematics for physically-based articulated figures using Genetic Programming.
  • David Browne is doing research on the coevolution of obstacle-avoiding steering agents versus obstacle-creating drawing agents.
  • Simon Raik has evolved a controller for a spaceship in a version of Asteroids.
  • Sean Luke et al. produced a team of competitors for the RoboCup competition in Co-evolving Soccer Softbots With Genetic Programming. See also this paper.
  • Jeffrey Ventrella has created several varieties of evolved virtual creatures, most recently his Sexual Swimmers.
  • Pet Evolution by Luigi Pagliarini et al.
  • Toybots: Towards an Artificial Pet interactive evolution of neural nets to control Lego robots, by Lund, Billard, Ijspeert, Miglino, and Pagliarini. See also Toybots.
  • (Not) Evolving Collective Behaviours in Synthetic Fish by Nahum Zaera, Dave Cliff, and Janet Bruten. Published in From Animals to Animats 4 (SAB96.
  • Framsticks evolution of 3d physically-based creatures.
  • A Genetic Programming Methodology for Strategy Optimization Under Uncertainty and A Genetic Programming Approach to Strategy Optimization in the Extended Two-Dimensional Pursuer/Evader Problem by Frank W. Moore and Oscar N. Garcia
  • Agents from Albia (an article from New Scientist) describes evolution of norns (CyberLife's Creatures) as pilots of jet fighters engaged in aerial combat.

• Evolution of shape:
  • Generic Evolutionary Design by Peter Bentley, see also the abstract of his Ph.D. thesis, and this excellent survey with examples: Aspects of Evolutionary Design by Computers
  • Pablo Funes and Jordan Pollack evolve Lego structures in Computer Evolution of Buildable Objects
  • Two 1977 papers: Voxel Based Approach To Evolutionary Shape Optimisation and ...Optimisation of a Simplified Beam... by Baron, P., Fisher, R., Mill, F., Sherlock, A., and Tuson, A.L. of Edinburgh University.
  • Genetic Algorithm Optimisation of Strain Gauge Load Cells and Evolutionary Optimization Applied to Wing Conceptual Design by Gordon Robinson
  • GARP: A Genetic Algorithm for a Three-Dimensional Non-Convex Bin Packing Problem.
  • Artificial Evolution of Implicit Surfaces: An Application of Genetic Programming, a Technical Sketch presented at SIGGRAPH 98 by Ted Bedwell.
  • Composite Flywheel Design a project to select the materials and shape of a flywheel to maximize energy storage, at MSU's GARAGe
  • Genetic L-System Programming a 1994 paper by Christian Jacob, from Parallel Problem Solving from Nature III, on evolution of L-Systems (synthetic botanical plant shapes) using Genetic Programming.
  • NetSpinner by Thiemo Krink and Fritz Vollrath models the emergence of web-spinning by spiders based on simple local rules. The rule sets are organized and tuned with a genetic algorithm. See also Behaviour: Spiders on a Virtual Web, Emergent properties in the behaviour of a virtual spider robot (in Proceedings of the Royal Society) and Biological Concepts for Adaptive and Distributed Algorithms.
  • Combining Approximation Concepts With Genetic Algorithm-Based Structural Optimization Procedures by Nair, Keane and Shimpi: examines the optimal design of a 10 bar truss structure.
  • Zeroth-Order Shape Optimization Utilizing a Learning Classifier System (1995) by Robert Richards: 2D and 3D shapes optimized according to mechanical criteria using a learning classifier system, a type of GA which evolves sets of rules.
  • The generation of form using an evolutionary approach by Michael Rosenman (see also the 1997 paper) and A Hierarchical Evolutionary Approach to the Generation of Form which presents an evolutionary approach to design using a hierarchical decomposition/aggregation growth model for architectual applications.
  • Evolutionary Algorithms In Engineering Applications edited by: Dipankar Dasgupta and Zbigniew Michalewicz
  • Genetic Algorithms in Manufacturing Engineering at the University of Sussex
  • Shape optimization by GA from the Proceedings of the Second Nordic Workshop on Genetic Algorithms and their Applications

• Online interactive evolution
  Here are some participatory, Web-based art projects which use evolutionary computation. Web users vote on the comparative esthetic value of several choices (images or sounds). These votes determine the fitness of the individuals which drives the composition of subsequent generation.
  • geneticArt III by John Mount is a very nice Java implementation of interactive evolution of images based on esthetic selection. It can be used from any web browser, and the Java source is provided. geneticArt III is based on 1994 work by John Mount, Scott Neal Reilly and Michael Witbrock. The pioneering, innovative International Interactive Genetic Art I and II were long time favorites of mine, but are now sadly lost to the mists of time.
  • Grammidity: Generating Music From Grammars, An Experiment in Genetic Programming by Jeff Putnam (jefu). Also available as a Java application (not applet).
  • FacePrints uses an interactive GA to evolve attractive human faces.
  • Evolutionary art at Absolut Vodka's exhibit about Kevin Kelly's book Out of Control.
  • Interactive mutation of IFS fractals by Henry Rowley
  • Evolution of Color and Shape by Christian Niss and Andreas Müller is a Java applet that uses a simple mutation scheme to demonstrate interactive evolution of a colored polygonal shape.
  • Cybertation a Windows application to breed and mutate rendered 3-D models, from Notting Hill Studio.
  • SBART by Tatsuo Unemi a design support tool to create interesting 2D images based on artificial selection, based on the work of Karl Sims.
  • Evolutionary Web-Sculpture by Bernd Lintermann, see also this description
  • Toolkit for Visual Genetic Programming with the user providing esthetic selection, described in this report
  • GenShade evolution of RenderMan shaders (procedural models of the appearance of 3d surfaces) by Aladin Ibrahim.
  • TRON a GA-based system evolves strategies to play the lightcycle game as depicted in the movie TRON. The evolving players are pitted again human players over the Web. See the SAB98 paper Animal-Animat Coevolution: Using the Animal Population as Fitness Function
  • The FACE-IT project by L. Pagliarini and D. Parisi. Includes an interactive demo movies and articles.
  • Tangram evolver by Andreas Geyer-Schulz from his Genetic Machine Learning
  • Rating Faces by Charlie Frowd is an evolutionary identikit similar to techniques used by police to help construct a facial image based on a witnesses recollection.
  • CambrianArt by Mattias Fagerlund allows you to breed and archive genetic images.
  • Selection3D (2001) by Markus Holenstein allows web site visitors to use aesthetic selection to guide the evolution of animated 3d shapes. The shapes are collections of capped tubes ("hot dog" shape). Evolution requires Java 2 Runtime Environment and Java3D (not available for all platforms) but the site includes a gallary of still and animated images.
  • I guess with evolution comes extinction, each of these cool sites have disappeared from the web since they were listed here:
    • International Interactive Genetic Art
    • evolved music (non-interactive) by Niall Hepburn.
    • Genetic Music by Greg Nwosu

• Evolution of visual art:
  • Genetic Images (1993) by Karl Sims, as described in his 1991 paper Artificial Evolution for Computer Graphics, see also Galápagos (1997).
  • Aesthetic Selection a description by Tom Ray of the early image evolution work of Karl Sims.
  • Computer Artworks, Ltd. based on the work of William Latham. Note especially the link for Organic Art software.
  • Evolving Line Drawings (1994) by Ellie Baker and Margo Seltzer, in Graphics Interface '94 Proceedings.
  • Henrik Hautop Lund et al.:
    • The Artificial Painter includes an interactive demo.
    • Self-Evolving Arts --- Organisms Versus Fetishes
  • A-Volve an art installation featuring real-time interactive between people and evolutionary creatures, by Christa Sommerer and Laurent Mignonneau.
  • Missing Links of Digital Evolution an article about art inspired by evolutionary and genetic themes.
  • Evolutionary Art of Mattias Fagerlund
  • Evolution of Pseudo-colouring Algorithms for Image Enhancement with Interactive Genetic Programming (compressed Postscript file) by Riccardo Poli and Stefano Cagnoni, Birmingham EEBIC group Technical Report CSRP-97-5, 1997.
  • A nice Java-based Biomorph program (after Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker) on an ALife site sponsored by the folks at Twleve Point Rule.
  • Computer Graphic Control over Human Face and Head Appearance, Genetic Optimisation of Perceptual Characteristics (PhD thesis, Abstract) by Duncan Rowland, includes the use of genetic algorithms to control the appearance of 3-D computer graphics objects and to investigate aesthetic preference for 3-D facial surfaces.
  • The evolutionary art of Steven Rook a large site containing art sample and technical details of Rook's aesthetic evolution of algorithmic images.
  • Genetic Programming, Genetic Art: Dr. Mutatis by Ken Musgrave provides Karl Sims-like evolution of images using esthetic selection.
  • Ishihama Yoshiaki (Stone) has a nice freeware Macintosh application for interactive evolution of Genetic Fractal using GP, see these sample images.
  • Copy Cat (evolution of mimicry) and Pattern Evolver (evolution of dither patterns) by Keith Wiley
  • Genetic Art by Peter Kleiweg based on genetic programming approach using the PostScript language. Code is available for download.

• Evolution of music:
  • GenJam (Genetic Jammer) is an interactive genetic algorithm by Al Biles that learns to play jazz solos. See also: Neural Network Fitness Functions for a Musical IGA
  • GenBebop by Lee Spector
  • Sonomorphs (An Application of Genetic Algorithms to the Growth and Development of Musical Organisms), and Further Adventures of the Sonomorphs by Gary Lee Nelson
  • GAMusic 1.0 by Jason H. Moore

• General EC resources:
  • Journals
    • Evolutionary Computation (MIT Press)
    • IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation
  • Conferences
    • GECCO-99: A Joint Meeting of the Eighth International Conference on Genetic Algorithms (ICGA-99) and the Fourth Annual Genetic Programming Conference (GP-99).
    • ECAL'99 5th European Conference on Artificial Life
    • Artificial Life conferences
    • EuroGP'99 Second European Workshop on Genetic Programming
    • EvoIASP99 First European Workshop on Evolutionary Computation in Image Analysis and Signal Processing
    • Symposium on Creative Evolutionary Systems (see program) April 1999
  • Other
    • Genetic Algorithms FAQ from comp.ai.genetic
    • Principia Evolvica Java-based EC tutorial by Christian Jacob
    • ENCORE The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to Evolutionary Computation
    • Genetic Programming:
      • Genetic Programming Genetic Programming Conferences Inc.
      • AIM Learning Technology Compiling Genetic Programming Systems (Francone, Nordin, and Banzhaf)
      • Inherent Characteristics and Biases of Evolution in Genetic Programming (tutorial)
      • Genetic Programming Mailing List Archive (1993-1998)
      • GP FTP site
      • Introductory books:
        • Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection, by John R. Koza, 1992.
        • Genetic Programming: An Introduction (On the Automatic Evolution of Computer Programs and Its Applications) by Banzhaf, Nordin, Keller, and Francone, 1998.
    • Evolution of strategy (for games etc.)
      • See Chris Rosin's page for links to his papers on Competitive Co-evolution
      • Protean Primates: The Evolution of Adaptive Unpredictability in Competition and Courtship by Geoffrey F. Miller
      • Coevolution Methods in
      • Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning in Markov Games by John W. Sheppard
      • FanG genetic Fandango boardgame

• Related surveys of evolutionary and algorithmic art
  • Aesthetic Evolutionary Design for Computer Graphics a comprehensive survey by Matthew Lewis of genetic search using interactive aesthetic applied to computer graphics.
  • Organic, Genetic, and Evolutionary Art and related software by Andrew Rowbottom.
  • Evolutionary Graphics by Linda Moss
  • Algorism: art with or from algorithms
  • Evolution as Artist by Tom Ray
  • Art Related Sites at the Artificial Life "Games" Homepage
  • Aspects of Evolutionary Design by Computers by Peter Bentley
  • Evolved Graphics by Lee Altenberg
  • Computers: Artificial Life: Art at the DMOZ Open Directory Project
  • Genetic art at Go Networks
  • The Organic Artists from Avatars! (see also) by Bruce Damer
  • Ms. Guidance on Genetic Art a collection of links much like this one.

Send comments to Craig Reynolds <cwr@red3d.com>
Last update: June 27, 2002